Sentences
A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. A sentence must contain a subject and a finite verb. A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark. More complex sentences use additional punctuation such as dashes, commas, semi-colons and colons. The following sections give you advice on Structure, Common Problems, Punctuation and Emphasis.
Links:
http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/writing/1a.html
www.towson.edu/ows/sentences.htm
The Internet TESL Journal site contains activities, in the form of quizzes, exercise and puzzles for ESL students.
Structure
There are four kinds of sentences in English
- Simple: A simple sentence contains one idea, one verb, and can stand alone (i.e. it is independent)
One student studied hard in class.
- Compound: A compound sentence joins two or more simple sentences using a conjunction:
One student studied hard in class. The rest of the class wasted time. =
One student studied hard in class but the rest of the class wasted time. - Complex: A complex sentence has one main idea (independent clause) and at least one other clause (additional information in a subordinate clause). Subordinate clauses use subordinating conjunctions such as because, although, if, until, while, after or relative pronouns such as that, who, which and whom.
Although I did well, I wasn’t happy with my result.
The maths teacher, who mainly taught Year 8 students, was excellent.
Punctuation note: In a sentence, if the independent clause is first, no punctuation is required. If the dependant clause appears first, use a comma between the two clauses.
Although I did well, I wasn’t happy with my results.
I wasn’t happy with my results although I did well.
A non-restrictive relative clause (conveying additional information) needs to be set-off by commas.
My friend, who plays tennis every weekend, is very fit.
- Compound-complex: A compound-complex sentence has two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clause.
Although the student missed a lot of classes, she studied hard and got excellent results.
Effective writing uses a variety of sentence structures to express meaning. Too many simple sentences will sound choppy and monotonous while too many long sentences will be difficult to read and hard to understand. Varying sentence style and structure can also reduce repetition and add emphasis. Long sentences work well for incorporating a lot of information, and short sentences can highlight crucial points.
top of pageCommon Problems
The two most common problems with making sentences are fragments and run-ons.
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A sentence fragment is a group of words that do not form a complete idea.
The following is an example of a sentence fragment
Studying hard in class. [Incorrect] (no subject – dependant clause)
Studying hard in class, the students were surprised how quickly the time went. [Correct]
Links: http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/writing/1b.html
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There are two types of run-on sentence.
The first is one in which two (or more) sentences are run together with no punctuation at all between them.
The increase in class sizes during the semester became a problem for the students a solution had to be found. [Incorrect]
The increase in class sizes during the semester became a problem for the students. A solution had to be found. [Correct]
The other type of run-on sentence occurs when two simple sentences are joined by a comma, instead of being separated by a full stop.
The lecturer announced the results of the exams, the students were surprised by them. [Incorrect]
You can correct this error by separating the sentences with a full stop, joining the sentences with a semi-colon (;), or by placing an appropriate connecting word such as ‘and’, ‘but’ or ‘because’ in front of the second sentence
The lecturer announced the results of the exams. The students were surprised by them. [Correct]
or
The lecturer announced the results of the exams and the students were surprised by them. [Correct]
Other common problems for writers are subject –verb agreement (SVA), parallel structure and consistency of pronouns/ referents. This linked Academic Skills Unit flyer provides examples of SVA with examples from academic writing in Education.
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SVA. A subject must agree in number with its verb. The subject and verb will be either singular or plural.
One of the pages are missing [Incorrect] single subject ‘One of the pages’
One of the pages is missing.[Correct]
Particular care needs to be taken with the third person singular form of verbs.
John live in France. [Incorrect]
John lives in France. [Correct]
There are six general rules about subject-verb agreement. The subject of each sentence is in bold.
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Singular subjects joined by the word ‘and’ are generally plural.
Both the architect and the interior designer like to push artistic boundaries.
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Indefinite pronouns (someone, anyone, no-one, anybody, somebody, nobody, one, either, neither) usually take a singular verb.
No-one likes to fail at university.
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Nouns that are preceded by a quantifier (some, any, all, most) can be singular or plural. This depends on whether the noun is countable or uncountable.
Some of the policies were rejected whilst others were approved. (policies is a countable noun)
Some of the research was conducted at the University of Melbourne. (research is an uncountable noun) -
After a subject joined by ‘either…or’, ‘neither…nor’, or ‘not only…but also’, the verb tends to agree with the subject nearest to it.
Neither the lecturer nor the students want to reschedule the class. (want agrees with students)
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‘There is’ and ‘there are’ agree with the noun that follows.
There is flexibility in this kind of management structure.
There are many advantages to this kind of management structure. -
A phrase beginning with a gerund (-ing form of the verb) or an infinitive is singular.
Being an auditor is a difficult but challenging job.
Links:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslsubverb.html
www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/SubjectVerb.html
www.grammaruntied.com/agreement/agreement.html
Darling's Guide to Good Grammar
A comprehensive guide to all aspects of grammar and syntax.
Daily Grammar. A comprehensive site with archived lessons on all aspects of grammar and punctuation
Parallel structure
Parallel structure (parallelism) is using the same grammatical form for a number of elements in a sentence, in order to emphasise the similarity between the ideas.
On Sunday I went on a picnic, swimming and played tennis. [Incorrect]
On Sunday I went on a picnic, had a swim and played tennis. [Correct]As a student you will need persistence, to be independent and creativity. [Incorrect]
As a student you will need persistence, independence and creativity. [Correct]
or
As a student you will need to be persistent, independent and creative. [Correct]
Pronouns/referents
A pronoun takes the place of a noun, so it must clearly agree in number, person and gender with the noun it refers to.
Number: refers to singular or plural.
The student lost his book. (singular agreement)
Peter and Lee lost their books. (plural agreement)
Person: refers to first, second or third person.
When a student comes to class you should have your homework ready. [Incorrect](a person = third person & you = second person)
When a student comes to class they should have their homework ready. [Correct]
Gender: masculine, feminine or neuter
Susan left her bag on the tram. (Feminine noun followed by a feminine pronoun)
The tree loses its leaves in autumn. (Neutral singular noun followed by neutral pronoun)
Punctuation
Well used punctuation helps sentence structure and enhances clarity. For good academic writing it is important to be consistent in the use of punctuation marks. The most commonly used punctuation marks are:
- Commas
- Semi colons
- Colons
- Dashes and hyphens
- Brackets
- Quotation marks
Using commas,
The comma (64KB | PDF) is the most common punctuation mark inside a sentence. Use commas:
- to separate items in a list
- To make a cake you need flour, eggs, milk butter and sugar.
- Writing a research report involves giving a description of the methodology, summarising the results, and interpreting the results of the discussion section.
- before the coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence
- Experts have discussed the problem for a while, but they have not found a solution.
- after introductory words, phrases or subordinate clauses
- Well, what do you think?
- Expecting a parcel, I answered the door. - to enclose non-essential information (non-restrictive clauses)
- The lecturer, who was very tall and thin, answered her question.
- His results, however, were confidential.
Links: www.towson.edu/ows/comma.htm
Using semi-colons (;)
A semi-colon is used to separate equal and balanced parts of a sentence. It is used:
- instead of a full-stop when two independent clauses are closely connected.
Some people work best in the mornings; others (work best) in the evenings
NB. Helps show a ‘balanced’ close connection - where main clauses are linked with a conjunctive adverb
(also, consequently, furthermore, moreover and therefore)
He didn’t do well; nevertheless, he remains happy - to separate items in a list, particularly if they are grammatically complex (i.e. commas are already used).
Classic science fiction sagas are Star Trek, with Mr Spock; Star Wars, with Luke Skywalker and Darth Vader; and Battlestar Galatica, with its Cylon Raiders.
Using colons (:)
The colon is used to introduce further information and to separate unequal parts of a sentence. It is used:
- before explanation or amplification (‘that is…’)
We decided not to go on holiday: we had too little money.
- to introduce direct speech
In the words of Walter Meave: ‘learning increases with motivation’.
- to introduce lists after a clause
We need three kinds of support: economic, moral and political.
Dashes and hyphens
The long dash (—) indicates an abrupt break in the sentence (similar in use to the colon or semi-colon but more casual) and gives clear emphasis (for an example, definition or contrast). Use sparingly!
Two of the strongest animals are vegetarians—the elephant and the gorilla.
The short dash is a connector
From 1890 - 1990
You can also use a short dash to build up complex words or to form compound nouns
sub-zero temperature, light-sensitive, grammar-check
Brackets
Curved brackets (parentheses) enclose supplementary information , or not really essential to the meaning of the sentence. For example:
He usually caught the tram (the stop was outside his home) to get to university.
Square brackets [ ] indicate words added inside a direct quote
‘…the [communicative] approach has as its principal objective…’
Quotation marks
Quotation marks (63KB | PDF) are used to indicate:
- the exact words of a writer or speaker
Smith (2008 p. 7) notes that ‘good academic writing uses consistent punctuation’.
- single words or phrases being used in an unusual or technical way e. g
The lecturer introduced the concept of ‘plate tectonics’ in today’s lecture.
The use of ‘single’ or “double” quotation marks is determined by referencing style. Most common is ‘single’ quote marks with “double marks” used only for quotations within quotations.
As Smith (2008 p. 8) notes: ‘according to Jones, the use of punctuation is “to help sentence structure”, but it is also used to avoid ambiguity’.
Links:
www.towson.edu/ows/punct2.htm
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/#punctuation
Emphasis
You can use sentence structures to emphasise your ideas. When writing general sentences you should go from old to new, familiar to unfamiliar, theory to practice and general to specific.
Clause placement
Placing the main clause first and the dependent clause/clauses after it, builds up meaning.
You will find your time at university most enjoyable whatever discipline you choose to study, whatever sport you choose to play, whatever club you choose to join.
This is the standard and most ‘natural’ sounding sentence structure (like speech). It is common in Medicine and Science. Putting the main clause after the subordinate clause / clauses delays the final meaning for as long as possible. This creates suspense and adds emphasis.
Whatever discipline you choose to study, whatever sport you choose to play, whatever club you choose to join, you will find your time at university most enjoyable.
Passives change the emphasis of a sentence from who performed an action to what happened.
The researchers published the results of their experiments.
The results of the experiments were published.
Nominalization (replacing verbs with nouns) can be used to add or change the emphasis in a sentence.
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned.
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police.
Referencing can be used to add emphasis to information. It can be used to make information author-prominent.
According to Smith (2008), effective academic writing is formal, objective, concise and accurate.
or to make the information prominent.
Effective academic writing is formal, objective, concise and accurate (Smith 2008).